C02 Chapter Introduction : NAG Library, Mark 28

Let

f (z)

be a polynomial of degree

n

with complex coefficients

a_{i}

f (z) \equiv a_{0} z^{n} + a_{1} z^{n - 1} + a_{2} z^{n - 2} + \dots + a_{n - 1} z + a_{n}, a_{0} \neq 0 .

A complex number

z_{1}

is called a zero of

f (z)

(or equivalently a root of the equation

f (z) = 0

), if

f (z_{1}) = 0 .

z_{1}

is a zero, then

f (z)

can be divided by a factor

(z - z_{1})

f (z) = (z - z_{1}) f_{1} (z)

(1)

where

f_{1} (z)

is a polynomial of degree

n - 1

. By the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, a polynomial

f (z)

always has a zero, and so the process of dividing out factors

(z - z_{i})

can be continued until we have a complete factorization of

f (z)

f (z) \equiv a_{0} (z - z_{1}) (z - z_{2}) \dots (z - z_{n}) .

Here the complex numbers

z_{1}, z_{2}, \dots, z_{n}

are the zeros of

f (z)

; they may not all be distinct, so it is sometimes more convenient to write

f (z) \equiv a_{0} {(z - z_{1})}^{m_{1}} {(z - z_{2})}^{m_{2}} \dots {(z - z_{k})}^{m_{k}}, k \leq n,

with distinct zeros

z_{1}, z_{2}, \dots, z_{k}

and multiplicities

m_{i} \geq 1

. If

m_{i} = 1

z_{i}

is called a simple or isolated zero; if

m_{i} > 1

z_{i}

is called a multiple or repeated zero; a multiple zero is also a zero of the derivative of

f (z)

If the coefficients of

f (z)

are all real, then the zeros of

f (z)

are either real or else occur as pairs of conjugate complex numbers

x + i y

and

x - i y

. A pair of complex conjugate zeros are the zeros of a quadratic factor of

f (z)

(z^{2} + r z + s)

, with real coefficients

r

and

s

Mathematicians are accustomed to thinking of polynomials as pleasantly simple functions to work with. However, the problem of numerically computing the zeros of an arbitrary polynomial is far from simple. A great variety of algorithms have been proposed, of which a number have been widely used in practice; for a fairly comprehensive survey, see Householder (1970). All general algorithms are iterative. Most converge to one zero at a time; the corresponding factor can then be divided out as in equation (1) above – this process is called deflation or, loosely, dividing out the zero – and the algorithm can be applied again to the polynomial

f_{1} (z)

. A pair of complex conjugate zeros can be divided out together – this corresponds to dividing

f (z)

by a quadratic factor.

Whatever the theoretical basis of the algorithm, a number of practical problems arise; for a thorough discussion of some of them see Peters and Wilkinson (1971) and Chapter 2 of Wilkinson (1963). The most elementary point is that, even if

z_{1}

is mathematically an exact zero of

f (z)

, because of the fundamental limitations of computer arithmetic the computed value of

f (z_{1})

will not necessarily be exactly

0.0

. In practice there is usually a small region of values of

z

about the exact zero at which the computed value of

f (z)

becomes swamped by rounding errors. Moreover, in many algorithms this inaccuracy in the computed value of

f (z)

results in a similar inaccuracy in the computed step from one iterate to the next. This limits the precision with which any zero can be computed. Deflation is another potential cause of trouble, since, in the notation of equation (1), the computed coefficients of

f_{1} (z)

will not be completely accurate, especially if

z_{1}

is not an exact zero of

f (z)

; so the zeros of the computed

f_{1} (z)

will deviate from the zeros of

f (z)

A zero is called ill-conditioned if it is sensitive to small changes in the coefficients of the polynomial. An ill-conditioned zero is likewise sensitive to the computational inaccuracies just mentioned. Conversely a zero is called well-conditioned if it is comparatively insensitive to such perturbations. Roughly speaking a zero which is well separated from other zeros is well-conditioned, while zeros which are close together are ill-conditioned, but in talking about ‘closeness’ the decisive factor is not the absolute distance between neighbouring zeros but their ratio: if the ratio is close to one the zeros are ill-conditioned. In particular, multiple zeros are ill-conditioned. A multiple zero is usually split into a cluster of zeros by perturbations in the polynomial or computational inaccuracies.

3 Recommendations on Choice and Use of Available Routines

All zeros of cubic,

complex coefficients

c02amf

real coefficients

c02akf

All zeros of polynomial,

complex coefficients,

fast modified Laguerre's method

c02aaf

real coefficients,

fast modified Laguerre's method